发育生物学

Centrosomes are dynamic organelles critical for mitotic spindle assembly and cilia formation. Here, I describe a protocol for quantifying relative centrosomal protein abundance in Drosophila melanogaster embryos using radial profile analysis of fluorescence intensity. The method involves embryo collection, manual dechorionation, mounting for live imaging, confocal microscopy, and subsequent image analysis. Radial profiling allows quantification of relative protein abundance together with its spatial distribution at the centrosome, providing either relative or normalized intensity profiles. I then outline how this approach can be integrated with complementary techniques such as fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) and super-resolution imaging, in this case, three-dimensional structured illumination microscopy (3D-SIM). Combining radial fluorescence profiling with these imaging modalities enables high-resolution, quantitative analysis of dynamic centrosome assembly in a genetically tractable system.

In the Japanese rhinoceros beetle Trypoxylus dichotomus, gene function studies have relied mainly on systemic larval RNA interference (RNAi), as gain-of-function techniques remain underdeveloped and germline transgenesis is impractical given the species’ approximately one-year generation time. In addition, because larval RNAi is systemic, it has been difficult to analyze the function of lethal genes. Here, we present a simple and efficient protocol for the direct introduction of exogenous DNA into T. dichotomus larvae via in vivo electroporation. This protocol includes optimized procedures for adult breeding and egg collection, as well as a rigorously parameterized electroporation technique that delivers a piggyBac transposon vector into region-specific larval tissues. Within one day after electroporation, treated larvae exhibit mosaic expression of a reporter gene, enabling rapid tissue-specific functional analysis without the need to establish stable germline transgenic lines. Moreover, the key promoter used in this system (T. dichotomus actinA3 promoter) is effective across diverse insect species, indicating that the method can be readily adapted to other non-model insects. Overall, this electroporation-based approach provides a valuable gain-of-function tool for T. dichotomus and potentially many other insect species.

The CRISPR/Cas9 system is a cornerstone technology in genome editing. Delivery of pre-assembled Cas9 ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes exhibits distinct advantages, including reduced off-target effects and lower immunogenicity. Conventional methods for purifying Cas9 protein typically involve multi-step chromatography and the cleavage of fusion tag, which are time-consuming and result in diminished yields. In this study, we present a simplified, one-step purification strategy for functional Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9 (SpCas9) using the ubiquitin (Ub) fusion system in Escherichia coli. The N-terminal Ub fusion not only improves protein solubility but also facilitates high-yield production of the His-Ub-Cas9 fusion protein. Importantly, the Ub tag does not require proteolytic removal during purification, allowing direct one-step purification of the fusion protein via nickel-affinity chromatography. The purified His-Ub-Cas9 retains robust DNA cleavage activity in vivo, as validated in zebrafish embryos. This protocol greatly simplifies the production of functional Cas9 protein, facilitating its broad application in genome editing.

Nowadays, the use of 3D cultures (organoids) is considered a valuable experimental tool to model physiological and pathological conditions of organs and tissues. Organoids, retaining cellular heterogeneity with the presence of stem, progenitor, and differentiated cells, allow the faithful in vitro reproduction of structures resembling the original tissue. In this context, the growth of endometrial organoids allows the generation of 3D cultures characterized by a hollow lumen, secretory activity, and apicobasal polarity and displaying phenotypical modification in response to hormone stimulation. However, a limitation in currently used models is the absence of stromal cells in their structure; as a result, they miss epithelial–stromal interactions, which are crucial in endometrial physiology. We developed a novel 3D model to generate endometrial organoids grown in floating Matrigel^TM droplets in the presence of standard culture medium. From a structural point of view, these novel floating 3D cultures develop as gland-like structures constituted by epithelial cells organized around a central lumen and retain the expression of endometrial and decidual genes, like previously published organoids, although with a phenotype resembling hormonally differentiated structures. Importantly, floating organoids retain stromal cells which grow in close contact with the epithelial cells, localized within the internal or external portion of the organoid structure. In summary, we present a simple and rapid model for generating 3D endometrial organoids that preserve epithelial–stromal cell interactions, promoting the formation of differentiated organoids and enabling the study of reciprocal modulation between epithelium and stroma.

Repetitive increases of intracellular calcium ions (Ca²⁺ oscillations) control cellular functions in various biological events, including meiotic resumption after fertilization. Sperm-derived substances enter the cytoplasm of mature oocytes by sperm fusion, causing Ca²⁺ oscillations. Sperm-independent Ca²⁺ oscillations are also induced in immature oocytes isolated from the ovaries of neonatal to adult mice. The presence of Ca²⁺ oscillations may contribute to subsequent oocyte quality; however, its physiological role and molecular mechanism are unclear. Here, we describe a method of collecting immature oocytes from the ovaries of juvenile (12, 15, and 21 days after birth) and adult mice and monitoring their Ca²⁺ oscillations. Since mouse oocytes are larger than other types of cells, they are a useful model for studying spatiotemporal patterns and the mechanism of Ca²⁺ oscillations in various types of cells. This method can be applied to other rodents due to similarities in oocyte size and developmental processes. Furthermore, the use of various fluorescent probes enables visualization of organelle rearrangement. The mechanism of interaction between oocytes and somatic cells differs between juvenile and adult mice. Therefore, two distinct methods are employed for oocyte collection.

Underwater noise is a growing source of anthropogenic pollution in aquatic environments. However, few studies have evaluated the impact of underwater noise on aquatic invertebrates. More importantly, studies involving early developmental stages have been poorly addressed. Significant limitations are due to the lack of standardized protocols for working in the laboratory. Particularly, the design of uniform procedures in the laboratory is important when working with species that inhabit short-term changing habitats, such as estuaries, which makes it difficult to carry out repeated experiments in the natural habitat. Besides, controlling for environmental variables is also important when assessing the effect of a stressor on the physiological parameters of individuals. This experimental protocol addresses that gap by offering an adaptable laboratory-based method to evaluate sublethal physiological responses to sound exposure under highly controlled conditions. Here, we present a reproducible and accessible laboratory protocol to expose crabs to recorded boat noise and evaluate physiological responses using oxidative stress biomarkers. The method is designed for ovigerous females, as we evaluated the effects on embryos and early life stages (i.e., larvae), but it can be readily adapted to different life stages of aquatic invertebrates. A key strength of this protocol is its simplicity and flexibility: animals are exposed to noise using submerged transducers under well-controlled laboratory conditions, ensuring consistency and repeatability. Following exposure, tissues or whole-body samples can be processed for a suite of oxidative stress biomarkers—glutathione-S-transferase (GST), catalase (CAT), lipid peroxidation (LPO), and protein oxidation. These biomarkers are highly responsive, cost-effective indicators that provide a sensitive and early readout of sublethal stress. Together, the exposure and analysis steps described in this protocol offer a powerful and scalable approach for investigating the physiological impacts of underwater noise in crustaceans and other aquatic invertebrates.

Congenital renal disorders, such as the Potter sequence, result from renal dysgenesis. To explore a prenatal therapeutic approach for fetuses with kidney insufficiency, we established an in utero transplantation protocol using donor fetal kidneys. Although numerous rodent studies have reported cellular injections into fetal recipients, no protocol to date has described whole-organ transplantation during gestation. Here, we present a step-by-step method for grafting donor fetal kidneys (embryonic day 14.0–16.5) into allogeneic rat fetuses at embryonic day 18.0–18.5, resulting in term neonates that retain the grafts postnatally. A 15–16 G needle preloaded with the donor kidney is inserted transuterinely, depositing the organ into the subcutaneous space of the fetus. Four days later, the term pups are delivered naturally and evaluated for graft development. This protocol enables organ-level transplantation and longitudinal assessment of graft maturation within the unique fetal environment, which differs markedly from adult settings in terms of growth factor availability and immune reactivity. To our knowledge, this is the first protocol to successfully achieve whole-organ transplantation directly into fetuses in utero. Therefore, the model provides a valuable platform for studying developmental organogenesis, fetal immunology, and regenerative strategies that leverage embryonic cues.

In mammals, the semen is ejaculated into the female reproductive tract, and the sperm travel to the oviduct to fertilize the egg. A comprehensive understanding of the pre- and post-ejaculatory intrauterine environment is one of the key points for overcoming infertility; however, the dynamics of the intrauterine environment and its physiological role in the uterus, namely in the internal fertilization process, remain unclear. Conventional methods for collecting uterine fluids from the uterus post-ejaculation of mice show challenges regarding the ambiguous ejaculation timing. Here, we established a method for a mating environment with exact ejaculation timing. We also created a simple method for collecting pre- and post-ejaculatory uterine fluid without using forceps. Our methods achieved time-dependent biochemical and histological analyses of uterine fluids to provide fundamental information regarding protein composition and uterine structure changes during pre- and post-ejaculation. This protocol is suitable for analyzing temporal changes in reproductive phenomena, thereby contributing to elucidating the physiological role of the uterus in the process of intrauterine fertilization.

Primary cilia are evolutionarily conserved organelles that play critical roles in brain development. In the developing cortex, neural progenitors extend their primary cilia into the ventricular surface, where the cilia act as key signaling hubs. However, visualizing these cilia in a systematic and intact manner has been challenging. The commonly used cryostat sectioning only provides a limited snapshot of cilia on individual sections, and this process often disrupts the ciliary morphology. By contrast, the previously established whole-mount technique has been shown to preserve ciliary architecture in the adult mouse cortex. Here, we adapt and optimize the whole-mount approach for embryonic and neonatal brain, allowing robust visualization of ciliary morphology at the ventricular surface during development. This protocol describes step-by-step procedures for whole-mounting and immunostaining delicate embryonic and neonatal mouse cortices, enabling direct visualization of cilia in neural progenitors in the developing brain.

Peripheral nerve injuries (PNIs) often result in incomplete functional recovery due to insufficient or misdirected axonal regeneration. Balanced regeneration of myelinated A-fibers and unmyelinated C-fibers is essential for functional recovery, making it crucial to understand their differential regeneration patterns to improve PNI treatment outcomes. However, immunochemical staining does not clearly differentiate between A- and C-fiber axons in whole-mount nerve preparations. To overcome this limitation, we developed a modified protocol by optimizing the immunostaining to restrict the antibody access to myelinated axons. This enables visualization of A-fibers by myelin sheath labeling, while allowing selective staining of unmyelinated C-fiber axons. As a result, A- and C-fibers can be reliably distinguished, facilitating accurate analysis of their regeneration in both normal and post-injury conditions. Combined with confocal microscopy, this approach supports efficient screening of whole-mount nerve preparations to evaluate fiber density, spatial distribution, axonal sprouting, and morphological characteristics. The refined technique provides a robust tool for advancing PNI research and may contribute to the development of more effective therapeutic strategies for nerve repair.